Biofilms in Surgical Site Infections: Recent Advances and Novel Prevention and Eradication Strategies

Abstract

Surgical site infections (SSIs) are common postoperative occurrences due to contamination of the surgical wound or implanted medical devices with community or hospital-acquired microorganisms, as well as other endogenous opportunistic microbes. Despite numerous rules and guidelines applied to prevent these infections, SSI rates are considerably high, constituting a threat to the healthcare system in terms of morbidity, prolonged hospitalization, and death. Approximately 80% of human SSIs, including chronic wound infections, are related to biofilm-forming bacteria. Biofilm-associated SSIs are extremely difficult to treat with conventional antibiotics due to several tolerance mechanisms provided by the multidrug-resistant bacteria, usually arranged as polymicrobial communities. In this review, novel strategies to control, i.e., prevent and eradicate, biofilms in SSIs are presented and discussed, focusing mainly on two attractive approaches: the use of nanotechnology-based composites and natural plant-based products. An overview of new therapeutic agents and strategic approaches to control epidemic multidrug-resistant pathogenic microorganisms, particularly when biofilms are present, is provided alongside other combinatorial approaches as attempts to obtain synergistic effects with conventional antibiotics and restore their efficacy to treat biofilm-mediated SSIs. Some detection and real-time monitoring systems to improve biofilm control strategies and diagnosis of human infections are also discussed.